A positive dipstick for blood can come from intact RBCs, haemoglobinuria or myoglobinuria, so the next test is urine microscopy to confirm true haematuria (and see whether the RBCs are dysmorphic/casts or intact). Rhabdomyolysis, for example, is dipstick-positive without RBCs on microscopy.

• Urine cytology is used later to look for urothelial malignancy, once haematuria is confirmed.